Neo-Realism meaning and key features

Meaning of Neo-Realism in International Relations

Neo-realism, also known as structural realism, is a theory of international relations developed by Kenneth Waltz in his seminal work “Theory of International Politics” (1979). Neo-realism builds on the traditional concepts of classical realism but focuses more on the structure of the international system as the key determinant of state behavior, rather than human nature or individual state characteristics.

Unlike classical realism, which emphasizes human nature and the inherent selfishness of states, neo-realism argues that the anarchic structure of the international system shapes the behavior of states. In an anarchic system where there is no central authority above states, each state must act to ensure its survival. The international system itself, rather than the individual characteristics of states or their leaders, is what drives states to seek power and security.

Key Features of Neo-Realism

1. Anarchic International Structure:
   • Neo-realism, like classical realism, starts with the assumption that the international system is anarchic, meaning there is no global government to enforce rules or maintain order.
   • States exist in a self-help system, and their actions are driven by the need to survive in this anarchic environment. The structure of the international system (i.e., the distribution of power among states) determines the behavior of states, rather than their internal politics or leadership.
2. States as Rational, Unit-Level Actors:
   • Neo-realism assumes that states are rational actors that act in their own self-interest to maximize their security and power within the constraints of the international system.
   • All states, regardless of size, ideology, or domestic political systems, face similar pressures due to the anarchic nature of the system and behave in ways that prioritize survival and security.
3. Distribution of Power (Polarity):
   • One of the core concerns of neo-realism is the distribution of power in the international system, often referred to as polarity. The number of great powers in the system (unipolar, bipolar, multipolar) determines the structure of the system.
     • Unipolarity: A single state (hegemon) dominates.
     • Bipolarity: Two great powers dominate (e.g., U.S. vs. Soviet Union during the Cold War).
     • Multipolarity: Multiple great powers exist, leading to a more complex balance of power.
   • According to neo-realists, the balance of power is the primary mechanism that maintains stability in the system. States will balance against any state or coalition that threatens to dominate the system.
4. Security Dilemma:
   • The security dilemma is a key concept in neo-realism. In an anarchic system, when one state increases its security (e.g., by building up its military), other states feel threatened and respond by increasing their own security.
   • This creates a cycle of tension and arms races, even if no state initially seeks conflict. The security dilemma makes cooperation difficult because states are always concerned that others may use their power to their disadvantage.
5. Relative Gains:
   • Neo-realism, like classical realism, emphasizes relative gains in state interactions. States are not just concerned with increasing their own power (absolute gains) but are primarily focused on how their power compares to others.
   • Even if cooperation could provide mutual benefits (absolute gains), states will avoid cooperation if they believe other states will gain more and thus improve their relative position in the system. This leads to competition rather than cooperation, even when mutual gains are possible.
6. Focus on Structure Over Human Nature:
   • Unlike classical realism, which emphasizes human nature and individual state characteristics (e.g., leadership, domestic politics), neo-realism focuses on the structure of the international system. The anarchic structure forces states to behave in predictable ways, regardless of their internal characteristics or the nature of their leaders.
   • According to neo-realists, the international structure (how power is distributed) shapes state behavior more than any other factor.
7. Balance of Power:
   • Neo-realists argue that states naturally seek to balance power in the international system to prevent any one state or coalition from becoming too dominant. This can be done by increasing their own military capabilities or forming alliances.
   • Balancing behavior is a rational response to the anarchic structure and the need for self-preservation. The balance of power helps maintain stability in the system, as states work to counterbalance potential threats.
8. Offensive vs. Defensive Neo-Realism:
   • Defensive Neo-realism (Waltz’s original version) argues that states seek to maintain the status quo and maximize their security, rather than constantly seeking to maximize their power. States act cautiously because aggressive actions can provoke counterbalancing coalitions.
   • Offensive Neo-realism, advanced by scholars like John Mearsheimer, suggests that states are not just content with balancing power; instead, they seek to maximize their power and dominate the international system whenever possible, believing that the best way to ensure survival is to achieve hegemony.
9. Minimal Role of International Institutions:
   • Neo-realists are skeptical of the effectiveness of international institutions like the United Nations or the World Trade Organization. While these institutions may facilitate cooperation in some cases, neo-realists argue that they cannot overcome the fundamental power dynamics in the anarchic system.
   • International institutions are viewed as reflections of the interests of the most powerful states, and their influence is limited by the underlying structure of power in the international system.
10. State-Centric Approach:
    • Neo-realism, like classical realism, is a state-centric theory. It views states as the primary actors in international relations, and non-state actors (e.g., international organizations, NGOs, corporations) are seen as less significant in shaping the overall structure and outcomes of the international system.
    • States, driven by the need for security, are the ones who set the rules and navigate the system of power politics.

Conclusion

Neo-realism, or structural realism, provides a framework for understanding international relations based on the anarchic structure of the international system and the distribution of power among states. It emphasizes the importance of state behavior driven by the need for survival and security, while downplaying the role of individual leadership, domestic politics, or international institutions. States operate in a self-help world, where power balancing is the key to maintaining stability, and cooperation is often difficult due to concerns about relative gains and the security dilemma.