What Are The Land Reforms Before Independance in India.

Before Independence, India’s agrarian structure was characterized by a highly exploitative and unequal system of land ownership and tenure, deeply rooted in the colonial administration’s policies. The British colonial government introduced several systems that primarily benefitted the landlords and the British government, leaving farmers in distress. The land reforms prior to independence in India revolved around these exploitative systems and their consequences.

Here are the major land systems and reforms that existed before independence :

1. Zamindari System (Permanent Settlement, 1793)

• Introduced by: Lord Cornwallis, during British colonial rule in 1793.
• Regions: Primarily Bengal, Bihar, Odisha, and parts of Northern India.
• Key Features:
  • Under the Permanent Settlement Act, the British recognized certain landowners (zamindars) as landlords who were responsible for collecting taxes from the peasants and paying a fixed revenue to the British.
  • The zamindars were allowed to keep the surplus after paying the fixed revenue to the British. This system made the zamindars powerful intermediaries, and they became the legal owners of the land.
  • The system did not allow any relief to the peasants if the crop failed; they had to pay the rent regardless of the situation.
  • Over time, many peasants lost their rights to the land and were reduced to tenants or sharecroppers, heavily burdened with debt.
• Impact:
  • It led to widespread oppression of peasants, with zamindars often exploiting them by charging exorbitant rents.
  • The peasants were left impoverished and landless, as they had no security of tenure.
  • The system created a class of absentee landlords who had little interest in improving agricultural productivity.

2. Ryotwari System (1820s)

• Introduced by: Thomas Munro, a British official, and Sir Alexander Read.
• Regions: Introduced in Madras Presidency, Bombay Presidency, and parts of Assam and Berar.
• Key Features:
  • Under this system, the direct relationship between the government and the individual cultivator (ryot) was established. The ryots were recognized as the owners of the land they cultivated.
  • The ryot was responsible for paying the land revenue directly to the British government, without any intermediaries (zamindars).
  • Land revenue was fixed for a certain period (usually 20-30 years), after which it was revised.
  • The revenue demand was high and often unrealistic, based on the assumption that the productivity of the land would increase.
• Impact:
  • While it allowed cultivators ownership rights, it did not offer adequate relief during bad agricultural seasons or famines. Ryots were often heavily burdened with taxes and could be dispossessed of their land if they failed to pay.
  • The system pushed many farmers into debt, and many lost their lands to moneylenders.
  • It led to gradual commercialization of agriculture, but many ryots ended up becoming tenants or laborers due to high taxes and loans.

3. Mahalwari System (1833)

• Introduced by: Holt Mackenzie and later modified by Lord William Bentinck.
• Regions: Northern India, including parts of Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, and Delhi.
• Key Features:
  • The village or community (mahal) was made collectively responsible for the payment of land revenue.
  • The system recognized the village community or headmen (lambardars) as the intermediaries between the government and the individual farmers. The lambardar was responsible for collecting the revenue on behalf of the village and submitting it to the British government.
  • The revenue was periodically revised, based on an assessment of the land’s productivity.
• Impact:
  • Though it was an attempt to preserve traditional village systems, it still imposed a heavy burden on the cultivators.
  • The village headmen often exploited the peasants, collecting more than the due share.
  • It led to similar issues of high taxation, indebtedness, and landlessness among farmers, as seen in other systems.

4. Tenancy Reforms and Exploitation of Tenants

• Tenants in all these systems were the worst affected, as they did not enjoy ownership rights over the land they cultivated.
• Absentee landlordism: Many zamindars and landlords lived away from their lands, relying on intermediaries who further exploited tenants.
• High Rents and Usurious Practices: Tenants were forced to pay very high rents to landlords, often up to half or more of their produce. In bad seasons, they were driven into debt, often borrowing money at high interest rates from landlords or moneylenders.
• Lack of Tenancy Rights: There was no security of tenure for tenants. They could be evicted from the land if they failed to pay rent or if the landlord wished to replace them with someone else willing to pay more rent.

5. Commercialization of Agriculture

• British colonial policies led to the commercialization of agriculture, where the focus shifted from subsistence farming to cash crops meant for export to Britain.
• Cash crops such as cotton, indigo, jute, tea, and opium became more prominent, often at the expense of food grains, leading to food insecurity for local populations.
• Commercial crops were usually grown under contract farming arrangements where farmers had to sell their produce at predetermined prices, often far below market rates.
• This shift to cash crops reduced food grain production, contributing to recurring famines.

6. Exploitation by Moneylenders

• Moneylenders played a significant role in exploiting farmers. Due to high taxation and insufficient income from agriculture, farmers frequently turned to moneylenders for loans.
• Loans were often given at extremely high interest rates, and failure to repay them led to the transfer of land ownership to moneylenders, further increasing landlessness among peasants.
• The Deccan Riots (1875) in Maharashtra were a result of widespread discontent among farmers due to the oppressive practices of moneylenders. The riots led to the enactment of the Deccan Agriculturists’ Relief Act (1879), which sought to regulate the interest rates charged by moneylenders and provide some relief to indebted farmers.

7. Famine and Food Insecurity

• The focus on commercial crops, combined with exploitative revenue systems, often resulted in reduced food grain production. This, along with natural calamities, contributed to recurring famines during British rule.
• Some of the most severe famines include the Great Bengal Famine of 1770, the Madras Famine (1876-1878), and the Bengal Famine of 1943, which resulted in millions of deaths.
• The inability of farmers to retain sufficient produce for their consumption, due to high taxation and rent demands, compounded the famine conditions.

Impact of Pre-Independence Land Systems

The land tenure systems and policies before independence were deeply exploitative and led to :

• Widespread landlessness and impoverishment among peasants.
• Increasing indebtedness as farmers took loans from moneylenders at exorbitant rates.
• Food insecurity and famines due to the focus on commercial crops.
• Peasant uprisings against exploitative landlords, moneylenders, and British authorities, such as the Santhal Rebellion (1855-1856) and the Indigo Rebellion (1859-1860).

Conclusion

Before Independence, the British land reforms and systems, including the Zamindari, Ryotwari, and Mahalwari systems, were largely exploitative, benefiting the British government and landlords at the expense of Indian farmers. These systems led to impoverishment, landlessness, and agrarian distress.

The absence of security of tenure, heavy taxation, and commercialization of agriculture created deep-rooted economic and social problems, the effects of which were felt even after independence. Addressing these issues became a major focus of post-independence land reforms and policy changes.