2. Authority

• Meaning: Power which is accepted as legitimate and rightful.
• Max Weber: Distinguished three types of authority:
  1. Traditional Authority – based on customs (kings, chiefs).
  2. Charismatic Authority – based on personal qualities of a leader (Gandhi, Mandela).
  3. Legal-Rational Authority – based on law and constitution (modern bureaucratic states).

👉 Authority is institutionalized power, not mere coercion.

3. Legitimacy

• Meaning: Belief of the people in the rightfulness of power or authority.
• A government is stable only when it is seen as legitimate by its citizens.
• David Beetham: Legitimacy rests on legality, shared values, and expressed consent.

Relationship

• Power without legitimacy = oppression.
• Authority gives structure to power.
• Legitimacy gives moral justification to authority.

Conclusion

Power is the capacity, authority is its institutionalized form, and legitimacy is the acceptance of authority. Together they ensure stability and order in the political system.

b) Rights and Freedom

Introduction

Rights and freedom are the foundation of modern democratic political life. They safeguard human dignity, provide opportunities for development, and protect citizens from arbitrary rule.

1. Rights

• Meaning: Claims recognized and protected by society and the state.
• Laski: “Rights are those conditions of social life without which men cannot seek to be themselves at their best.”
• Types of Rights:
  1. Natural Rights – life, liberty, property (Locke).
  2. Legal Rights – granted and enforced by the state.
  3. Moral Rights – based on conscience, not enforceable by law.
  4. Fundamental Rights – constitutional rights (e.g., Indian Constitution: Right to Equality, Freedom, etc.).

👉 Rights are meaningful only when guaranteed by law and accompanied by duties.

2. Freedom

• Meaning: Absence of unreasonable restrictions on individual action, enabling self-development.
• Isaiah Berlin’s Two Concepts of Liberty:
  1. Negative Liberty – absence of external interference (freedom from).
  2. Positive Liberty – presence of conditions for self-realization (freedom to).

Dimensions of Freedom:

• Political freedom (vote, association).
• Economic freedom (employment, property).
• Social freedom (equality, dignity).

Relationship between Rights and Freedom

• Rights provide legal guarantees to freedom.
• Freedom gives real meaning to rights.
• Example: Right to Freedom of Speech ensures freedom of expression.

Conclusion

Rights and freedom are inseparable in democratic societies. Rights protect freedom, and freedom ensures individual dignity and participation in collective life.

c) Equality and Justice

Introduction

Equality and justice are basic values of political philosophy. Every political system must ensure equality among citizens and deliver justice to maintain harmony in society.

1. Equality

• Meaning: Equal treatment of individuals in political, social, and economic spheres.
• Dimensions of Equality:
  1. Political Equality – one person, one vote; equal participation.
  2. Social Equality – abolition of caste, race, gender discrimination.
  3. Economic Equality – reducing inequalities of wealth and income.
  4. Legal Equality – equal protection of laws.

👉 Equality does not mean uniformity; it means equal opportunities for all.

2. Justice

• Meaning: Giving each individual what is due to him/her. Justice ensures fairness in society.
• Types of Justice:
  1. Legal Justice – fairness in law and courts.
  2. Political Justice – equal political rights.
  3. Social Justice – removal of social discrimination.
  4. Economic Justice – fair distribution of wealth and opportunities.
• Thinkers:
  • Aristotle: Justice is giving each person his due.
  • John Rawls: Justice as fairness; principles of equal liberty and difference principle.

Relationship

• Equality is an essential condition of justice.
• Justice ensures equality is meaningful in practice.
• Example: Reservation policy in India is meant to ensure social justice by promoting equality of opportunity.

Conclusion

Equality and justice are two pillars of democracy. Without equality, justice becomes empty; without justice, equality becomes meaningless. Together, they ensure fairness, dignity, and harmony in society.